Spring and Autumn Period

History of China
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The Spring and Autumn Period (simplified Chinese: 春秋时代; traditional Chinese: 春秋時代; pinyin: Chūnqiū Shídài; Jyutping: ceon1 cau1 si4 doi6) was a period in Chinese history that roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC to the first half of the 5th century BC). Its name comes from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 479 BC, which tradition associates with Confucius. The period itself lasted from 770 to 476 BC.

During the Spring and Autumn period, China was ruled under a feudal system. The Zhou Dynasty kings held nominal power but only directly ruled over a small royal demesne centered on their capital (modern-day Luoyang). They granted fiefdoms over the rest of China to several hundred hereditary nobles (Zhuhou 諸侯). These were descendants of members of the Zhou clan, close associates of the founders of the dynasty, or local potentates. The most important feudal princes (known later as the twelve princes, 十二諸侯), met during regular conferences, where important matters, such as military expeditions against foreign groups or offending nobles, were decided. During these conferences, one prince was sometimes declared hegemon (伯, later 霸) and given leadership over the armies of all the feudal states.

As the era unfolded, larger and more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones. By the 6th century BC, most small states had disappeared, and a few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou. Wars were undertaken to oppose some of these states (Wu and Yue). In the state of Jin, six powerful families fought for supremacy, and a series of civil wars resulted in the splitting of Jin into six smaller states by the beginning of the fifth century.

At the same time, the control that the Zhou kings exerted over the feudal princes slowly - but inexorably - faded. Eventually the nominal Zhou kings lost all real influence, the feudal system crumbled, and the Warring States Period began.

Contents

Beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty

After the Zhou capital was sacked by western barbarian tribes, crown prince Ji Yijiu (姬宜臼) fled to the east. During the flight from the western capital to the east, the king relied on the nearby lords of Qi (齊), Zheng (鄭) and Jin (晉) for protection from barbarians and rebellious lords. He moved the Zhou capital from Zongzhou (Hao, near Xi'an) to Chengzhou (Luoyang) in the Yellow River valley.

The fleeing Zhou elite did not have strong footholds in the eastern territories; even the crown prince's coronation had to be supported by the states to be successful. With the Zhou domain greatly reduced to Luoyang and nearby areas, the court could no longer support six groups of standing troops (六軍, liù jūn). Subsequent Zhou kings had to request help from neighbouring powerful states for protection from raids and for resolution of internal power struggles. The Zhou court would never regain its original authority; instead, it was relegated to being merely a figurehead of the feudal states. Though the king de jure retained the Mandate of Heaven, de facto the title held no real power.

Rise of the hegemonies

The first noble to help the Zhou kings was the Duke Zhuang of Zheng (鄭庄公) (r. 743-701 BC). He was the first to establish the hegemonical system (bà 霸), which was intended to retain the old proto-feudal system. Traditional historians justified the new system as a means of protecting weaker civilized states and the Zhou royalty from the intruding "barbarian" tribes. Located in the south, north, east and west, the barbarian tribes were, respectively, the Man, Yi, Rong and Di.

Urbanisation during the Spring and Autumn period.

The newly powerful states were more eager to maintain aristocratic privileges, as against the traditional ideology of supporting the weak ruling entity during times of unrest (匡扶社稷 kuāng fú shè jì), which was to be widely propagated during imperial China to consolidate power within the ruling family.

Dukes Huan of Qi (r. 685-643 BC) and Wen of Jin (r. 636-628 BC) made further steps in installing the overlordship system, which brought relative stability, but lasting for shorter time periods than before. Annexations increased, favoring the several of the most powerful states, including Qin, Jin, Qi and Chu. The overlord role gradually drifted from its stated intention of protecting weaker states; the overlordship eventually became a system of hegemony of major states over weaker satellites of Chinese and "barbarian" origin.

The great states used the pretext of aid and protection to intervene and gain advantages over the smaller states during their internal quarrels. Later overlords were mostly derived from these great states. They proclaimed themselves masters of their territories, without even recognizing the petty figurehead of Zhou. Establishment of the local administration system (Jun and Xian), with its officials appointed by the government, gave states better control over their domains. Taxation facilitated commerce and agriculture more than proto-feudalism.

The three states of Qin, Jin and Qi not only optimized their own strength, but also repelled the southern state of Chu, whose rulers had proclaimed themselves kings. The Chu armies gradually intruded into the Yellow River Basin. Framing Chu as the "southern barbarian", Chu Man, was merely a pretext to warn Chu not to intrude into their respective spheres of influence. Chu intrusion was checked several times in three major battles with increasing violence - the Battle of Chengpu, the Battle of Bi and the Battle of Yanling; this resulted in the restorations of the states of Chen and Cai.

Interstate relations

Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period.

See main article: Interstate relations during the Spring and Autumn period.

During the period, a complex system of interstate relations developed. It was partially structured upon the Western Zhou system of feudalism, but elements of realpolitik were emerging. A collection of interstate customary norms and values, which can perhaps be loosely termed international law, was also evident. As the operational and cultural areas of states expanded and intersected, diplomatic encounters increased.

Changing tempo of war

After a period of increasingly exhaustive warfare, Qi, Qin, Jin and Chu finally met for a disarmament conference in 579 BC, at which the other states essentially became satellites. In 546 BC, Jin and Chu agreed to yet another truce.

During the relatively peaceful 6th century BC, two coastal states, Wu in today's Jiangsu, and Yue in today's Zhejiang, gradually grew in power. After defeating and forcing the suicide of King Fuchai of Wu, King Goujian of Yue (r. 496-465 BC) became the last recognized overlord.

This era of peace was only a prelude to the maelstrom of the Warring States Period. The four powerful states were all in the midst of power struggles. Six elite landholding families waged war on each other in Jin. The Chen family was eliminating political enemies in Qi. Legitimacy of the rulers was often challenged in civil wars by various royal family members in Qin and Chu. Once all these powerful rulers had firmly established themselves within their respective dominions, the bloodshed among states would continue in the Warring States Period. The Warring States Period officially started in 403 BC, when the three remaining elite families in Jin - Zhao, Wei and Han - partitioned the state; the impotent Zhou court was forced to recognize their authority.

History of Detail

Expulsion from the Wei River valley in 771 BC broke the power of the Zhou kings. Thereafter they ruled as figureheads until the dynasty was extinguished in 256BC.

During the Spring and Autumn Period the Chinese states formed a fairly stable multi-state system something like Europe or ancient Greece, but with the Zhou king as a figurehead. There were at least 154 states of which about 15 were significant powers. Inter-state conferences emphasized the fact that the states were a real, but informal, community. At various times one state would be recognized as Ba or leader. States would grow weaker as power flowed from the Duke to his nobles. A vigorous duke might centralize power and lead his state to a brief period of prominence. Several states had their power broken when a Duke's death led to a succession dispute. Power tended to shift to the states on the frontier since they had room to expand and fewer Chinese enemies. The smaller states (at least 128 of them) were gradually annexed by the larger ones. By the end of the Spring and Autumn Period warfare was beginning to become excessive.

The Period of Zheng (771-701BC) Zheng was located on the plain about 75 miles east to the Zhou capital of Luoyang. Zheng and Jin established King Ping of Zhou on the throne in 771. It was especially powerful under Duke Zhuang of Zheng (757-701). When King Ping appointed a minister from the state of Guo Duke Zhuang objected and the two ruling houses exchanged hostages. When the next Zhou king appointed another minister from Guo, Duke Zhuang raided the royal territory and the king's army was defeated and the king himself was wounded. After several wars, most of the states recognized the leadership of Zheng, although the title of Ba was not yet used. When he died, his sons engaged in a civil war and the supremacy of Zheng came to an end.

The Period of Qi (Shandong) (685-643): corresponds to the reign of Duke Huan of Qi and his great minister Guan Zhong. The state was reformed and centralized and its power over other states grew. In 667 Duke Huan called a conference of the rulers of Lu, Song, Chen and Zheng where he was elected leader. Soon King Hui of Zhou gave him the official title of Ba. In 664 he protected Yan from the Rong. In 659 he restored the state of Xing which had been nearly destroyed by the Chi Di. In 660 he performed the same service for Wey. In 656 he led an alliance of eight states to block the northward expansion of Chu. At his death in 643, five of his sons contended for the throne and Qi's status as Ba came to an end.

The Period of Jin (636-558): Jin was located in southern Shanxi northeast of the Zhou capital and expanded to the north and east. Duke Xian of Jin(676-651) centralized the state by extinguishing the power of various branches of his family. He conquered sixteen smaller states and a number of Rong and Di peoples. His son, Duke Wen of Jin (636-628) came to the throne after a nineteen-year exile in various states. In 635 Wen restored King Xiang of Zhou and was rewarded with territory near the royal capital. In 632 he blocked the expansion of Chu at the Battle of Chengpu, probably the largest battle in the Spring and Autumn period. Shortly after he held a conference of the various states and was given the title of Ba. In 627-624 there were wars with Qin in the west, in 598 Chu defeated Jin at the battle of Mi and in 589 Jin defeated Qi in the east. In 579, under Duke Li of Jin, Jin, Chu, Qi and Qin held a peace conference and agreed to limit their armies (this is perhaps the earliest recorded disarmament conference). Jin and its allies defeated Chu at Yanling in 574. After Duke Li was killed, Duke Dao of Jin (572-558) strengthened the state and was recognized as Ba.

The Aggression of Chu (c 656-546): Chu was located on the southern frontier along the middle Yangzi River. Part of its population was Nanman and the region was considered somewhat un-Chinese. Its growth was probably connected with the southward expansion of Chinese population and civilization, but this is hard to document. It expanded northeast annexing Zhou states in the Han River valley, north taking over Zhou states on the central plain and northeast conquering non-Zhou peoples in the Huai River valley. This expansion was resisted by Qi and Jin (see above).

The slow rise of Qin (771-546): In the century after the expulsion of the Zhou king from the Wei River valley Qin gradually took control of the region and absorbed many of the local Rong - a process that is poorly documented. Qin had the great advantage of a natural fortress "within the passes". By around 650 it was involved in wars with Jin, its only significant neighbor. The effect was to militarize both states.

A four-way Balance of Power (circa 546): By the sixth century there were four major powers: Qin (west), Jin (center), Chu (south) and Qi (east). Most of the lesser states were on the North China Plain between Jin and Qi. This situation was confirmed by a conference at Shangqiu in 546 in which many of the lesser states were officially recognized as satellites.

The rise of Wu and Yue (c583-465): Wu and Yue were originally non-Zhou states near the lower Yangzi River east of Chu. Yue was along the coast and Wu to the north of it and somewhat west. Like Chu, their growth may be connected with the southward expansion of Chinese civilization. From about 583 Jin began to aid Wu as a counterweight to Chu. Wu took control of several Chu vassals and began to participate in Zhou politics. In 506 Wu launched a major war against Chu which led to its near collapse. In 496 the king of Wu died during an invasion of Yue. His son, King Fuchai of Wu nearly destroyed the Yue state, defeated Qi, threatened Jin and in 482 held an interstate conference. While Fuchai was in the north, Yue captured the Wu capital. Fuchai rushed back but was besieged and died when the city fell (473). Yue was now the strongest state in China and was the last proper Ba.

The Partition of Jin (497-403) marks the end of the Spring and Autumn Period and is often assigned to the Warring States Period. After the great age of Jin power, the Jin dukes began to lose power to their nobles. In 497 the nobles began a full-scale civil war. By 453 there were only four major clans left and in that year the three weaker clans destroyed the stronger, leaving only Hann, Wei and Zhao. In 403 they divided the Jin state between themselves. This left only seven major states in the Zhou world: the three fragments of Jin, the three remaining great powers of Qin, Chu and Qi and the weaker state of Yan near modern Beijing. The partition of Jin marks the beginning of the Warring States Period.

List of overlords (Ba)

A large bronze tripod vessel from the Spring and Autumn Period, now located at the Hainan Provincial Museum

See main article: Five Hegemons (Spring and Autumn Period)

Traditionally, the Five Overlords of Spring and Autumn Period (春秋五霸 Chūn Qiū Wǔ Bà) include:

While some other historians suggest that the Five Overlords include:

Table of States

States of the Spring and Autumn Period
Name Chinese
( Trad./Simp.)		 Capital (s) Established Dissolved
Bā 巴 Yíchéng (夷城)
Píngdū (平都)
Zhĭ (枳)
Jīangzhōu (江州)
Diànjīang (垫江)
Lánzhōng (阆中)		 unknown 316 BCE
Cài 蔡 Shàngcài (上蔡)
Xīncài (新蔡)
Xiàcài (下蔡)		 Before 1043 BCE 447 BCE
Cáo 曹 Táoqiū (陶丘) Before 1043 BCE 487 BCE
Chén 陳/陈 Wănqiū (宛丘) c. 1046 BCE 479 BCE
Chéng 郕 (Western Zhou Period 1066 - 770 BCE) In the vicinity of the Zhou capital Haojing
郕 (Chéng), Shandong		 c. 1100 BCE unknown
Chŭ 楚 Dānyáng（丹陽/丹阳）c. 1030 - c. 680 BCE
Yĭng (郢) c.680 - 278 BCE
Chén (陳/陈) 278 - 241 BCE
Shòuchūn (寿春) from 241 - 224 BCE		 c. 1030 BCE 223 BCE
Dào 道 Dào (possibly north of modern day Quèshān County, Henan or south of Xī County, Henan) unknown unknown
Dèng 鄧/邓 Dèngzhōu (鄧州/邓州), Henan Province or Xiāngfán (襄樊), Hubei Province c. 1200 BCE 678 BCE
Dōng Guó 東虢/东虢 unknown 1046 BCE 767 BCE
Huá 滑 Fèi 費/费 unknown 627 BCE
Jìn 晉/晋 Táng (唐), renamed Jìnyáng (晉陽/晋陽)
Qŭwò (曲沃)
Jiàng (絳/绛) also known as Yì (翼)
Xīntián (新田), renamed Xīnjiàng (新絳新绛)		 11th Century BCE 376 BCE
Liáng 梁 Hánchéng (韩城) unknown 641 BCE
Lŭ 魯/鲁 Lŭshān (魯山)
Yănchéng (奄城)
Qŭfù (曲阜)		 11th Century BCE 256 BCE
Qí 齊/齐 Yíngqiū (營丘/营丘) 1046 BCE 221 BCE
Qǐ 杞 Qǐ (杞) 16th Century BCE 445 BCE
Qín 秦 Xīchuí (西垂)
Yōng (雍) ? - 350 BCE
Xiányáng (咸阳) 350 - 206 BCE
 9th Century BCE 206 BCE
Shēn 申 Nányáng (南阳) unknown between 688 and 680 BCE
Shŭ 蜀 possibly Sānxīngduī (三星堆) Before 1046 BCE 316 BCE
Sòng 宋 Shāngqiū (商丘) 11th Century BCE 286 BCE
Téng 滕 Téng (滕) Before 1043 BCE mid 4th Century BCE
Wèi 衛/卫 Zhāogē.(朝歌)
Cáo (曹)
Chŭqiū (楚丘)
Dìqiū (帝丘)
Yĕwáng (野王)		 11th Century BCE 209 BCE
Wú 吴/吳 Wú (吳/吴), sometimes referred to as Gūsū（姑蘇/姑苏） 11th Century BC 473 BC
Xī 息 Xī Xiàn (息县) 1122 BCE Between 684 and 680 BCE
Xī Guó 西虢/西虢 Yōngdì (雍地)
Shàngyáng (上阳)
Xiàyáng (下阳)		 1046 BCE 687 BCE
Xú 徐 Tangcheng (郯城) c. 20th Century BCE 512 BC
Xŭ 許/许 (or 鄦) Xŭ (鄦)
Yè (叶)
Báiyŭ (白羽)
Róngchéng (容城)		 c. 11th Century BCE c. 5th Century BCE
Yān 燕 Jì (薊) 11th Century BCE 222 BCE
Yù 郁 unknown unknown unknown
Yuè 越 Kuàjī (會稽/会稽) 489 - 468 BCE
Lángyá (琅琊) 468 - 379 BCE
Wú (吴/吳) 379 - 334 BCE
Kuàjī (會稽/会稽) 333 - 306 BCE		 c. 11th century BCE (38 generations before King Goujian of Yue) 306 BCE
Zhèng 鄭/郑 Zhèng (鄭/郑)
Xìnzhèng (新郑)		 806 BCE 375 BCE

Key:

Hegemon

Note: Capitals are shown in their historical sequence.

List of important figures

Bureaucrats or Officers

Guan Zhong (管仲), statesman and advisor of Duke Huan of Qi and regarded by some modern scholars as the first Legalist.
Baili Xi (百里奚), famous prime minister of Qin.
Bo Pi, （伯噽）the corrupted bureaucrat under King Helü and played important diplomatic role of Wu-Yue relations.
Wen Zhong 文種 and Fan Li 范蠡, the two advisors and partisans of King Goujian of his rally against Wu.
Zi Chan, （子產）leader of self-strengthening movements in Zheng

Influential scholars

Confucius（孔子）, leading figure in Confucianism
Laozi （老子）or Lao tse, teacher of Daoism
Mozi, known as Motse (墨子 Mò Zǐ) or "Mocius" (also "Micius") to Western scholars, founder of Mohism

Historians

Confucius（孔子）, the editor of Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋)

Engineers

Mozi（墨子）
Lu Ban（鲁班）

Smelters

Ou Ye Zi（歐冶子）, literally means Ou the smelter and mentor of the couple Gan Jiang and Mo Ye

Entrepreneurs and Commercial personnel

Fan Li（范蠡）

Generals, military leaders and authors

Rang Ju, （穰苴）elder contemporary and possibly mentor of
Sun Tzu, （孫子）the author of The Art of War

Assassins

Yao Li, （要离）sent by King Helü to kill Qing Ji（庆忌）.
Zhuan Zhu,（专渚） sent by He Lu to kill his cousin King Liao
Mo Xie

List of important events

770 B.C. - The nobility of the Zhou realm supported King Píng of Zhou (周平王) as the new king of the Zhou Dynasty. King Píng moved the capital to Luòyì (雒邑). The era of the Eastern Zhou, or the Spring and Autumn Period, began. King Píng appointed the son of the noble Yíng Qí (贏其) to the northwestern part of the Zhou realm. He was named Duke Xiāng of Qin (秦襄公). The kingdom of Qin (秦) was begun.

763 B.C. - Duke Zhuang of Zheng (郑庄公) attacked and destroyed the barbarian kingdom of Hú (胡國). Duke Zhuang relied on his famous officer Zhài Zhòng (祭仲).

750 B.C. - Duke Wén of Jin (晉文侯), Jī Chóu (姬仇), attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Yú Chén Zhou (余臣周)

704 B.C. - Duke of Chǔ (楚), Mǐ Xióng Tōng (羋熊通), saw the weakened power of the King of Zhou as an opportunity to break free from being a tributary state of the Zhou Dynasty and claimed the title of king himself. He announced the kingdom of Chǔ (楚國) and called himself King Wu of Chu (楚武王).

701 B.C. - Duke Zhuang of Zheng (鄭莊公) died. His son Jī Hū (姬忽) succeeded the title of Duke and was known as Duke Zhāo of Zheng (鄭昭公). Because Lady Yōng (雍氏) of Song (宋國) was married to Duke Zhuang of Zheng and had a son named Ji Tū (姬突), the King of Song thought that he could extend influence in Zheng by helping to support a new ruler who had relations with Song. Zhài Zhòng (祭仲), who had the respect and influence in the state of Zheng, was lured and captured by Song and was forced to support Jī Tū as the successor to the throne

Notes

References

External links

Eastern Zhou Dynasty topics
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